The Rise of the Marathas

Who were the Marathas?

The Marathas emerged from Marathi-speaking communities of the Deccan, particularly present-day Maharashtra. The Yadavas of Devagiri ruled much of the region before expansion by the Delhi Sultanate. Bhakti traditions and Marathi literature helped shape social and cultural networks. Saints such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram and Ramdas communicated ideas in languages people understood. Political consolidation occurred amid Deccan sultanates, Mughal ambitions, local chiefs and trade routes.

Foundation of Maratha power and Shivaji's early life

Shivaji Bhonsle was born in 1630 to Shahaji and Jijabai. He grew up in the Pune region and began taking control of forts and territory as a young leader. His goal of swarajya meant self-rule and independent sovereignty in its seventeenth-century context, not automatically a modern electoral democracy. Forts, community support and local knowledge helped him build authority.

Forts, terrain and guerrilla warfare

The Western Ghats have steep hills, valleys and passes. Forts such as Rajgad, Raigad and Pratapgad guarded routes, stored supplies and sheltered soldiers. Small mobile units used speed, surprise and local knowledge against larger armies. Guerrilla warfare describes such tactics; it does not mean every Maratha battle was fought in the same way. Coastal forts protected harbours and shipping.

Bijapur, Afzal Khan and Mughal conflict

Shivaji fought Bijapur's Adilshahi forces. Afzal Khan died during their meeting at Pratapgad in 1659; descriptions of the confrontation differ among historical accounts. Shivaji later raided Shaista Khan's camp and attacked the Mughal port of Surat, actions with political, military and civilian consequences. After Jai Singh's campaign, the Treaty of Purandar (1665) required territorial concessions. Shivaji visited Agra in 1666, was confined and escaped; the textbook recounts a basket-based escape narrative.

Coronation and southern campaign

Shivaji's coronation at Raigad in 1674 formally asserted sovereign kingship. He adopted the title Chhatrapati and began the Rajyabhisheka era. His southern campaign, or dakshina digvijaya, extended influence toward parts of present-day Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and created strategic depth. Map 3.9 distinguishes his territories from those of Ekoji, his half-brother.

The Marathas after Shivaji

After Shivaji's death in 1680, Sambhaji and then Rajaram led resistance against Mughal campaigns. Sambhaji was captured and executed. Rajaram used Gingee in Tamil Nadu as a base. Tarabai subsequently directed military resistance and expansion. Aurangzeb's prolonged Deccan campaigns failed to eliminate Maratha power.

Peshwas and eighteenth-century expansion

The Peshwa was originally a leading minister, but Peshwas later gained major authority. Bajirao I and Nanasaheb expanded Maratha influence across much of India. Maratha armies reached Delhi and at times Lahore, Attock and Peshawar. The defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 was severe, but power recovered under Madhavrao I and Mahadji Shinde; Delhi was recaptured in 1771. Influence differed from direct and continuous administration in every region.

Anglo-Maratha wars and changing power

Three Anglo-Maratha wars took place between 1775 and 1818. Maratha chiefs often pursued distinct interests, and the East India Company developed substantial military and financial resources. The first war ended without British conquest of the Maratha state; the third ended Peshwa dominance in 1818. The textbook's claim that the British took India more from the Marathas than from the Mughals refers to the Marathas' large political and military role when British expansion accelerated, not to a single transfer of all India.

Civilian administration and welfare

Shivaji developed a relatively centralised administration and used salaried, transferable officials to limit entrenched hereditary power. The chapter notes pensions for some widows of fallen soldiers and concern for subjects' property. His instructions about tree cutting ask officials to avoid unnecessary harm to cultivators and valuable fruit trees. These policies are historical examples, not proof that every official always followed them.

Ashta Pradhan council

The Ashta Pradhan Mandal was a council of eight ministers. The textbook diagram identifies Pradhan (prime minister), Amatya (finance), Mantri (intelligence), Sachiv (land revenue), Sumant (foreign affairs), Senapati (commander-in-chief), Nyayadhish (chief justice) and Panditrao (religious affairs). Titles and responsibilities could change in practice. A council supported the Chhatrapati; it did not replace sovereign authority.

Chauth and sardeshmukhi

The textbook describes chauth as a levy of 25% and sardeshmukhi as an additional 10% imposed on some provinces outside direct Maratha control. For a hypothetical assessed revenue of ₹1,000, 25% is ₹250 and 10% is ₹100, making ₹350 if both are calculated on the same base. This is a classroom arithmetic illustration, not a claim that every province always paid exactly these amounts.

Military administration

Maratha forces included infantry, cavalry and navy. Bargirs received horses and equipment from the state, whereas shiledars supplied their own. Forts were central to defence; artillery, firearms and rockets were also used. During the eighteenth century, some commanders adopted European-style drilled infantry and artillery.

Maritime power and Kanhoji Angre

Shivaji established a navy to protect the Konkan coast and maritime trade; the textbook dates its founding to 1657. Sindhudurg and other sea forts guarded routes. In the eighteenth century Kanhoji Angre challenged European shipping powers and their pass systems. European accounts sometimes called him a pirate, a label that must be interpreted in the context of competing claims to maritime authority.

Justice, local administration and trade

Local panchayats, chiefs and urban kotwals helped handle disputes and public order; historical panchayats were not identical to modern elected Panchayati Raj institutions. Roads, ferries and coastal ships supported commerce. Maratha-linked ships travelled to Muscat, Mocha and Malacca. Merchants transported textiles and other goods, and maritime strategy was connected to taxation and security.

Culture, language and coins

Shivaji's seal asserted sovereignty and public welfare. His administration promoted Marathi and Sanskrit vocabulary through the Rajya-Vyavahara-Kosha. The Modi script was used widely for Marathi correspondence. Maratha coins included Devanagari and, in some cases, Persian inscriptions, showing that cultural identity and administrative practice were historically complex.

Tarabai and Ahilyabai Holkar

Tarabai led resistance after Rajaram's death and helped sustain Maratha independence during prolonged conflict. Ahilyabai Holkar governed in central India, supported public works such as wells, roads and ghats, restored religious sites and patronised crafts including Maheshwar textiles. Both show women's roles in military and civilian leadership.

Thanjavur Marathas and Serfoji II

Ekoji established Maratha rule in Thanjavur in the late seventeenth century. Tamil, Telugu and Marathi traditions interacted in its court. Thanjavur painting and music received patronage. Serfoji II supported education, printing, medicine, the Dhanwantari Mahal and cultural institutions. The textbook links court patronage to developments in Carnatic music and Bharatanatyam; these art forms have broader histories beyond any single dynasty.

Legacy and historical reasoning

Maratha power reshaped political geography, challenged Mughal dominance, resisted European maritime control and supported cultural production. Assess achievements alongside warfare, extraction, shifting alliances and differences between regions. Use letters, coins, forts, maps and chronicles critically. Historical narratives should not be used to blame present-day communities for past rulers' actions.

Historical timeline

Ashta Pradhan — eight ministerial roles

Military and administration comparison

Let's Explore and Think About It — activity guidance

Bhakti traditions

Choose Tukaram, Namdev, Dnyaneshwar or Ramdas. Research the person's life and teachings from a reliable source, then explain the importance of regional-language devotional expression without inventing a quotation.

Three questions for Shivaji

Ask how he selected fort locations, what he expected from officials, and why he invested in a navy. Explain that these are questions a modern student would ask, not an authentic historical interview.

Guerrilla warfare and geography

Compare terrain-dependent mobility in the Western Ghats with another historically documented case. Explain the defensive role of forests, passes, intelligence and supply lines.

Classroom play

Stage the Raigad coronation or a fort-planning council with a narrator who distinguishes recorded events from invented dialogue.

Shivaji's letter on trees

Its instructions against forced cutting of valuable fruit trees suggest concern for cultivators' livelihoods, restraint by officials and the long-term value of trees.

Bharatanatyam and Thanjavur

Research how Maratha court patronage contributed to developments in the art form while recognising its older and broader South Indian roots.

NCERT Questions and activities — all eight complete model solutions

Original practice questions with explanations and final answers

MCQs, HOTS and common exam mistakes

MCQ: Where was Shivaji crowned? Raigad. MCQ: Who led eighteenth-century Maratha naval campaigns? Kanhoji Angre. HOTS: Why can a network of forts be more useful than one large fort? It distributes supplies, guards routes and offers multiple defensive bases. Numerical: On a hypothetical ₹1,000 revenue base, chauth at 25% equals ₹250 and sardeshmukhi at 10% equals ₹100. Exam traps: Panipat 1761 did not end Maratha political activity; a Peshwa was not originally the same office as the Chhatrapati; historical panchayats differ from modern local-government bodies.

Textbook figures and map guidance

Figure 3.1 shows Raigad; Fig. 3.2 gives the timeline; Fig. 3.6 shows Sindhudurg; Fig. 3.9 maps Shivaji's territories around 1680 and distinguishes Ekoji's holdings; Fig. 3.13 diagrams the eight ministers; Fig. 3.14 illustrates coinage; Figs. 3.18–3.19 highlight Maratha women; Figs. 3.21–3.22 relate to Thanjavur culture. Original textbook figures are not embedded; consult the official map for precise locations and legends.

Source: Official NCERT Class 8 Social Science Chapter 3 PDF. Biographical creative writing and coin designs are model student work, not authentic historical artifacts. Historical accounts of contested episodes should be read critically.