The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
The French Revolution of $1789$ marked the first clear manifestation of modern nationalism in Europe. It transferred sovereignty from the absolute monarchy to a body of French citizens.
Collective Identity Measures Introduced:
- La Patrie & Le Citoyen: The notions of the fatherland (la patrie) and the citizen (le citoyen) emphasized the concept of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
- New Tricolour Flag: Replaced the former royal standard.
- National Assembly: Estates General was renamed and elected by active citizens.
- Uniform Laws & Metric System: Abolished internal customs duties and established uniform weights and measures.
- French as National Language: Regional dialects were discouraged, and French became the common national tongue.
The Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code)
Napoleon Bonaparte introduced revolutionary administrative reforms across conquered territories:
- Abolished all privileges based on birth.
- Established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
- Simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
- Removed guild restrictions in towns; improved transport and communication systems.
Unification of Germany & Italy
1. Unification of Germany (1866-1871):
- Architect: Otto von Bismarck (Chief Minister of Prussia) through his policy of "Blood and Iron".
- Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark, and France ended in Prussian victory.
- In January $1871$, Prussian King William I was proclaimed German Emperor at the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles.
2. Unification of Italy:
- Giuseppe Mazzini: Founded secret society Young Italy to promote a unitary Italian Republic.
- Count Camillo de Cavour: Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont who engineered diplomatic alliance with France to defeat Austrian forces in $1859$.
- Giuseppe Garibaldi: Led the famous armed expedition of the "Red Shirts" into South Italy and Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in $1860$.
- In $1861$, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.
